Exploring Esp32 S3 Touch Lcd 4: Material Grades, Properties, and Uses

Types of ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4

The ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 is a powerful development platform combining the advanced ESP32-S3 microcontroller with an integrated touchscreen display. With several variants available, each model offers unique combinations of display technology, touch sensitivity, durability, and driver compatibility. Understanding these differences is essential for selecting the right module for your embedded project—whether it's a smart home interface, industrial control panel, or IoT prototype.

ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (4.0 inch)

One of the most widely used variants, featuring a 4.0-inch TFT display with a resolution of 480 x 320 pixels. It supports capacitive touch, enabling smooth, smartphone-like interaction.

Advantages

• High-resolution display for crisp visuals
• Responsive capacitive touch interface
• Ideal size for handheld and portable devices
• Balances screen real estate and compact design

Limitations

• Slightly higher power draw than smaller models
• May require additional shielding in noisy environments

Best for: User interfaces, DIY smart devices, educational kits, and control panels

ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (TFT)

Features a Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) display known for vibrant color reproduction, high contrast, and wide viewing angles. Available in sizes from 3.5 to 4 inches, making it ideal for graphics-heavy applications.

Advantages

• Rich, saturated colors and excellent brightness
• Superior viewing angles (up to 160°)
• Perfect for dashboards, data visualization, and media displays
• Fast refresh rates for dynamic content

Limitations

• Higher cost compared to basic LCDs
• Increased power consumption under full brightness

Best for: Graphic-intensive applications, dashboards, and multimedia interfaces

ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (4 with Frame)

This version includes a protective metal or plastic frame that enhances durability and simplifies mounting. It retains all core functionalities while improving mechanical stability.

Advantages

• Extra protection against impacts and scratches
• Easier integration into enclosures or panels
• Improved heat dissipation and structural support
• Suitable for industrial or outdoor use

Limitations

• Slightly bulkier than frameless versions
• Potential for increased weight in portable devices

Best for: Industrial controls, rugged environments, permanent installations

ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (with Touch)

Emphasizes full touch integration, supporting multi-touch gestures such as pinch-to-zoom, swipe, and tap. Designed for intuitive user experiences in modern applications.

Advantages

• Supports gesture-based navigation
• Enhances user interactivity and engagement
• Ideal for app-like interfaces and touch menus
• Compatible with GUI frameworks like LVGL

Limitations

• Requires more processing power for smooth performance
• Firmware must be optimized for touch responsiveness

Best for: Interactive kiosks, mobile UIs, gesture-driven applications

ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (4.0 inch, ILI9341)

Uses the popular ILI9341 display driver with a standard 4-wire SPI interface. Offers a resolution of 480 x 320 and supports 16-bit color depth (65K colors). Known for reliability and broad software support.

Advantages

• Excellent compatibility with Arduino, ESP-IDF, and MicroPython
• Low power consumption in idle mode
• Large community support and example code
• Easy to integrate with minimal external components

Limitations

• SPI interface can limit refresh speed for animations
• Requires careful signal routing for noise reduction

Best for: Maker projects, rapid prototyping, Arduino-based development

Model	Display Size	Resolution	Touch Type	Key Features
ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (4.0")	4.0 inches	480 x 320	Capacitive	Balanced performance, ideal for general use
ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (TFT)	3.5" – 4.0"	480 x 320	Capacitive/Resistive	Vibrant colors, wide viewing angles
ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (4 with Frame)	4.0 inches	480 x 320	Capacitive	Durable, easy to mount, rugged design
ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (with Touch)	4.0 inches	480 x 320	Multi-Touch	Gesture support, high interactivity
ESP32-S3 Touch LCD (ILI9341)	4.0 inches	480 x 320	Capacitive	Arduino-compatible, low power, SPI interface

Expert Tip: When using the ILI9341-based models, enable DMA (Direct Memory Access) in your code to offload the CPU and achieve smoother screen updates. Also, consider using anti-aliasing libraries if rendering text or graphics for improved readability.

Features of ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4-Inch Development Board

The ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4-inch development board is a powerful and versatile platform designed for modern IoT and embedded applications. Combining robust processing, wireless connectivity, and an intuitive touch interface, it enables developers to build advanced, interactive projects with ease. Below is a detailed breakdown of its key features and benefits.

1. Dual-Band Wireless Communication

The ESP32-S3 integrates Wi-Fi 4 (802.11 b/g/n) and Bluetooth 5 (LE) connectivity, enabling seamless communication in diverse environments. This dual wireless capability allows the board to connect to local networks, cloud platforms, and peripheral devices such as smartphones, sensors, and wearables.

The 4-inch LCD complements this functionality with a high-resolution, bright display that ensures excellent visibility in various lighting conditions. Coupled with a responsive touch interface, it supports smooth navigation, real-time data visualization, and user interaction—ideal for dashboards, control panels, and smart home interfaces.

2. Capacitive Multi-Touch Screen

The board features a capacitive touchscreen that supports multi-touch gestures such as tap, swipe, pinch-to-zoom, and long press. Unlike resistive touchscreens, capacitive technology offers higher sensitivity, durability, and a more smartphone-like user experience.

This makes it perfect for creating modern graphical user interfaces (GUIs) using frameworks like LVGL or TFT_eSPI. Whether you're building a portable device, industrial controller, or educational tool, the touch interface enhances usability and engagement.

3. High-Performance Dual-Core Processor

Powered by a dual-core Xtensa LX7 processor running at up to 240 MHz, the ESP32-S3 delivers significant computational power for complex tasks. This enables real-time processing of sensor data, audio, and even lightweight machine learning models directly on the device.

With support for TensorFlow Lite and ESP-NN libraries, developers can implement on-device AI features such as gesture recognition, voice commands, and image classification—reducing reliance on cloud processing and improving response times and privacy.

4. Extensive I/O and Peripheral Support

The development board provides access to a wide range of GPIO pins, including support for I2C, SPI, UART, PWM, and ADC interfaces. This rich set of input/output options allows easy integration with external components such as temperature sensors, motors, relays, cameras, and displays.

Its expandability makes it ideal for prototyping smart devices, robotics, automation systems, and connected appliances. The board can act as a central hub in complex projects requiring multiple sensors and actuators.

5. Energy-Efficient Operation

Designed with power efficiency in mind, the ESP32-S3 includes multiple low-power modes—including Light Sleep, Deep Sleep, and Hibernation—allowing it to operate efficiently in battery-powered applications.

Even with the LCD and touch functionality active, optimized firmware can significantly extend battery life. This makes the board suitable for portable devices, remote monitoring systems, and outdoor IoT deployments where power conservation is critical.

6. Developer-Friendly Ecosystem

The ESP32-S3 is fully compatible with popular development platforms such as Arduino IDE, ESP-IDF (Espressif IoT Development Framework), and MicroPython. This broad compatibility lowers the entry barrier for beginners while offering advanced capabilities for experienced developers.

A vast community, extensive documentation, and a wealth of open-source libraries accelerate development and troubleshooting. Whether you're building a proof-of-concept or a production-ready product, the ecosystem supports rapid prototyping and iteration.

Feature	Description	Use Case Benefit
Wi-Fi & Bluetooth LE	Dual wireless communication protocols	Enables internet connectivity and device pairing for IoT networks
4" Capacitive Touch LCD	High-resolution color display with multi-touch support	Perfect for interactive dashboards, kiosks, and control panels
Dual-Core 240 MHz CPU	Xtensa LX7 processor with FPU	Handles complex logic, real-time data, and edge AI tasks
Rich GPIO & Peripherals	Multiple digital and analog interfaces	Supports extensive hardware expansion and sensor integration
Low-Power Modes	Supports sleep, deep sleep, and hibernation	Ideal for battery-operated and remote applications
Development Support	Arduino, ESP-IDF, MicroPython compatible	Fast prototyping with community-backed tools and libraries

Tip: When using the LCD and touch features simultaneously, ensure adequate power supply (preferably 5V via USB or external source) to avoid brownouts. Also, optimize display refresh rates and use partial updates to reduce CPU load and power consumption.

Commercial Value of ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4

The ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 has emerged as a transformative solution in the embedded systems and IoT landscape, combining powerful processing, intuitive touch interface, and seamless connectivity. Its growing adoption across industries underscores its strong commercial viability and potential for innovation-driven product development.

1. Growing Demand for Smart Devices

The global surge in demand for smart, connected devices has created a perfect ecosystem for the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4. With built-in support for capacitive touch and high-resolution display drivers, it enables developers to create responsive, interactive user interfaces for applications ranging from smart home controls to portable diagnostics.

• Supports rich GUI frameworks like LVGL, enabling professional-grade interfaces on low-cost hardware
• Ideal for edge devices requiring local feedback without cloud dependency
• Enables rapid prototyping of smart appliances, wearables, and control panels

Market Insight: The global smart device market is projected to exceed $1.5 trillion by 2028, creating sustained demand for capable yet affordable platforms like the ESP32-S3.

2. Cost-Effective Integrated Solution

The ESP32-S3 integrates a dual-core 32-bit LX7 processor, Wi-Fi 4, Bluetooth 5 (LE), USB OTG, and AI acceleration—all on a single chip. When paired with an integrated LCD controller and touch interface, it eliminates the need for external controllers or co-processors, significantly reducing bill-of-materials (BOM) costs.

• Reduces system complexity and PCB footprint, lowering manufacturing costs
• Enables competitive pricing in consumer electronics without sacrificing performance
• Supports mass deployment in commercial IoT projects with predictable ROI

Cost Advantage: Up to 30% lower system cost compared to multi-chip alternatives with similar functionality.

3. Versatility Across Industries

The modular design and robust feature set of the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 make it adaptable to a wide range of commercial applications:

• Healthcare: Patient monitoring dashboards, portable diagnostic tools with touch input
• Industrial Automation: HMI panels, machine status displays, and control interfaces
• Consumer Electronics: Smart thermostats, kitchen appliances, and audio devices
• Education: Interactive learning kits and STEM development boards

Scalability: From small DIY projects to enterprise-grade deployments, the platform scales efficiently with software updates rather than hardware changes.

4. Integration with Machine Learning at the Edge

The ESP32-S3 features a vector instruction set and AI coprocessor that enable basic machine learning inference directly on the device—eliminating latency and privacy concerns associated with cloud-based processing.

• Supports TensorFlow Lite Micro for on-device ML models
• Enables gesture recognition, voice commands, and predictive maintenance
• Facilitates user behavior analytics for personalized device experiences

Innovation Edge: Businesses can differentiate products with intelligent features like adaptive interfaces or anomaly detection in real time.

5. Strong Developer Community & Ecosystem Support

Backed by Espressif Systems and a vast open-source community, the ESP32-S3 benefits from continuous improvements, extensive documentation, and ready-to-use libraries. This ecosystem dramatically reduces development time and risk.

• Arduino, ESP-IDF, MicroPython, and Zephyr OS support ensure broad accessibility
• Thousands of tutorials, forums, and GitHub repositories accelerate learning and troubleshooting
• Regular firmware updates enhance security and add new capabilities

Time-to-Market Advantage: Companies report up to 50% faster development cycles when leveraging existing ESP32-S3 tools and community knowledge.

6. Future-Proof Design & Commercial Scalability

With built-in security features (secure boot, flash encryption), over-the-air (OTA) update support, and long-term availability guarantees, the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 is engineered for commercial longevity.

• Ensures compliance with evolving cybersecurity standards
• Reduces field service costs through remote updates
• Compatible with cloud platforms like AWS IoT, Google Cloud IoT, and Azure

Strategic Value: Ideal for startups and enterprises alike seeking scalable, maintainable, and upgradable embedded solutions.

Business Recommendation: For product designers and OEMs, the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 offers a compelling balance of performance, cost, and development speed. It’s particularly valuable for launching MVPs (Minimum Viable Products) or scaling smart device portfolios. Consider using certified modules (e.g., ESP32-S3-WROOM) to simplify FCC/CE compliance and accelerate regulatory approval.

Application Sector	Key Use Case	Development Time (Est.)	Commercial Advantage
Smart Home	Touch-enabled thermostat interface	4–6 weeks	Low-cost, Wi-Fi/BLE dual-mode connectivity
Industrial IoT	Machine status HMI panel	6–8 weeks	Robust performance in harsh environments
Healthcare	Portable vital signs monitor	8–10 weeks	On-device data processing for privacy compliance
Education	Interactive STEM learning device	3–5 weeks	Open-source tools reduce licensing costs

Additional Strategic Considerations

• Supply Chain Resilience: ESP32 modules are widely available from multiple distributors, reducing dependency risks
• Energy Efficiency: Ultra-low power modes extend battery life in portable applications
• Customization: Open hardware designs allow for branding and feature differentiation
• Sustainability: Long software support lifecycle reduces electronic waste
• Global Certification: Pre-certified modules simplify international market entry

How To Choose the Right ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4: A Comprehensive Buyer’s Guide

Selecting the appropriate ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 is crucial for the success of your embedded project. The ESP32-S3 is a powerful microcontroller with integrated Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, making it ideal for IoT and smart device applications. When paired with a touchscreen LCD, it becomes a versatile platform for user interfaces, data visualization, and control systems. This guide explores the key considerations to help you make an informed decision based on performance, compatibility, and project requirements.

Important Note: The term "ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4" typically refers to development boards integrating the ESP32-S3 chip with a 4-inch capacitive or resistive touchscreen display. Always verify the exact specifications from the manufacturer, as variations exist in resolution, touch controller, and pinout.

Key Factors When Choosing an ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4

1. Display Quality and Visual Performance

   Display quality significantly affects user experience and readability. Opt for a high-resolution screen—commonly 480x480 or 800x480 pixels—for sharp text and crisp graphics. Look for IPS (In-Plane Switching) panels, which offer superior color accuracy, wider viewing angles, and consistent brightness compared to standard TFT displays.

   • Color Depth: Choose models with 16-bit or 24-bit color depth for vibrant, true-to-life visuals.
   • Brightness: A brightness level of 300–500 nits ensures visibility in various lighting conditions, including direct sunlight.
   • Contrast Ratio: Higher contrast ratios (e.g., 1000:1) enhance readability and improve the aesthetic appeal of UI elements.
2. Touch Sensitivity and Interface Type

   Touch responsiveness is critical for interactive applications. Capacitive touchscreens are preferred over resistive types due to their smoother operation, multi-touch capability, and smartphone-like user experience.

   • Touch Controller: Common controllers include FT6236 or XPT2046. Ensure driver support in your development environment (e.g., Arduino, ESP-IDF).
   • Multi-Touch Support: Essential for gesture-based navigation (pinch-to-zoom, swipe). Verify the number of simultaneous touch points (usually 2–5).
   • Latency: Low touch response time (<10ms) ensures fluid interaction, especially in real-time applications.
3. Interface Compatibility and Development Support

   Ensure seamless integration between the LCD module and the ESP32-S3. Most displays connect via SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) or parallel RGB interfaces. SPI is common for smaller displays, while RGB offers faster refresh rates for larger screens.

   • Communication Protocol: SPI is widely supported and easier to wire; however, it may limit refresh speed. RGB or MIPI interfaces provide higher bandwidth but require more GPIOs.
   • Library Support: Confirm availability of well-maintained libraries such as TFT_eSPI, LVGL, or Adafruit_GFX that support both the display driver (e.g., ST7789, ILI9341) and touch controller.
   • Pin Mapping: Check the board's pinout to avoid conflicts with other peripherals like SD cards or sensors.
4. Size and Form Factor

   The physical dimensions of the display must align with your project’s mechanical constraints and usability goals. A 4-inch diagonal screen (approximately 9–10 cm) offers a good balance between visibility and compactness.

   • Aspect Ratio: Common ratios include 1:1 (square), 4:3, or 16:9. Choose based on UI layout preferences.
   • Mounting Options: Look for boards with mounting holes or bezel designs suitable for enclosures.
   • Viewing Area: Consider the active display area versus overall board size, especially in space-constrained designs.
   • User-Centric Design: If the device is consumer-facing, involve end-users in form factor decisions to ensure ergonomic and intuitive use.
5. Power Consumption and Efficiency

   Power efficiency is vital for battery-powered or portable applications. The display is often the largest power consumer in a system.

   • Backlight Control: Select models with PWM-controllable backlight to dynamically adjust brightness and save power.
   • Idle Modes: Some displays support sleep or deep-sleep modes that reduce power draw when inactive.
   • Average Current Draw: Typical values range from 50mA (low brightness) to over 200mA (full brightness). Factor this into your power budget and battery life calculations.
6. Cost and Value Considerations

   While budget constraints are real, prioritize long-term value over upfront cost. Cheaper modules may lack documentation, reliable drivers, or quality control.

   • Price Range: Expect to pay $20–$50 for a quality ESP32-S3 + 4" Touch LCD combo, depending on features.
   • Development Time: A slightly more expensive board with excellent library support can save hours of debugging.
   • Scalability: Consider future production costs if moving from prototype to mass deployment.

Selection Criteria	Recommended Specification	Trade-offs	Popular Models/Examples
Display Resolution	480x480 or 800x480	Higher res increases data bandwidth and memory usage	LILYGO T-Display-S3, M5Stack CoreS3
Touch Type	Capacitive (FT6x36)	More expensive than resistive; sensitive to moisture	Adafruit ESP32-S3 TFT, LILYGO T5 Series
Interface	SPI or RGB	SPI: slower but fewer pins; RGB: faster but complex wiring	Seeed Studio XIAO ESP32S3 Sense
Color Depth	16-bit or 24-bit	Higher depth uses more RAM and processing power	Most modern IPS displays
Power Consumption	<100mA @ 50% brightness	Brightness vs. battery life trade-off	Boards with adjustable backlight

Expert Tip: Use a GUI framework like LVGL (Light and Versatile Graphics Library) to build rich, responsive user interfaces efficiently. LVGL is optimized for embedded systems and works seamlessly with ESP32-S3 and common TFT displays, supporting animations, touch events, and theming.

Additional Recommendations

• Always download the latest datasheets and example code from the manufacturer before purchasing.
• Test the display with your chosen development environment early in the prototyping phase.
• Consider thermal performance—some displays may overheat under continuous full-brightness use.
• Look for boards with onboard PSRAM (e.g., 8MB), which is essential for handling graphics buffers in high-resolution applications.
• Check community forums (e.g., GitHub, ESP32 forums) for known issues or compatibility patches.

Choosing the right ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 involves balancing technical specifications, development ease, and project-specific needs. By carefully evaluating display quality, touch performance, interface compatibility, physical design, power efficiency, and cost, you can select a solution that enhances both functionality and user experience. When in doubt, opt for well-documented, community-supported development boards to streamline your workflow and reduce integration challenges.

Frequently Asked Questions About ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4

Q1: Can the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 be used in outdoor environments?

Yes, the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 is well-suited for outdoor applications, provided it is properly protected. While the module itself is capable of functioning in various conditions, direct exposure to environmental elements can compromise its performance and longevity.

• Protective Enclosure: It is highly recommended to house the device in a weather-resistant enclosure that shields it from rain, dust, UV radiation, and temperature extremes.
• High-Brightness Display: Opt for a version with high screen brightness (typically 800+ nits) to ensure excellent visibility under direct sunlight.
• Thermal Management: Prolonged exposure to sunlight can cause overheating. Use enclosures with ventilation or passive cooling features to aid heat dissipation and maintain optimal operating temperatures.
• Anti-Reflective Coating: Some models include anti-glare screens, which further improve readability in bright outdoor settings.

With appropriate housing and configuration, the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 performs reliably in outdoor kiosks, smart agriculture systems, parking controls, and portable field devices.

Q2: What is the purpose of touch screen shielding?

Touch screen shielding is a critical design feature that enhances the reliability and accuracy of capacitive touch functionality by mitigating electromagnetic interference (EMI).

• EMI Protection: The shield acts as a barrier that blocks external electromagnetic noise from nearby motors, power supplies, radios, or other electronic devices that could distort touch input signals.
• Signal Integrity: By reducing interference, the shielding ensures clean signal transmission between the touch controller and the display, resulting in precise touch detection.
• False Touch Prevention: Without shielding, stray EMI may cause phantom touches or unresponsive areas on the screen—shielding minimizes these issues significantly.
• Industrial Applications: This feature is especially valuable in industrial, automotive, or urban IoT environments where high levels of EMI are common.

In essence, touch screen shielding improves user experience and system stability in electrically noisy environments, making the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 more robust and dependable.

Q3: Is the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 suitable for gaming applications?

Yes, the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 is an excellent platform for lightweight to mid-tier gaming applications, thanks to its powerful processor and integrated touch interface.

• Processing Power: The ESP32-S3 features a dual-core Xtensa LX7 CPU running up to 240 MHz, providing sufficient computational power for 2D games, puzzles, arcade-style titles, and educational games.
• Touch Controls: The built-in resistive or capacitive touchscreen allows for intuitive user interaction, enabling swipe gestures, taps, and drag controls commonly used in mobile gaming.
• Graphics Performance: With support for parallel RGB interfaces and DMA-driven rendering, smooth frame rates can be achieved when optimized using frameworks like LVGL or TFT_eSPI.
• Audio & Input Expansion: Additional components such as speakers, buttons, or sensors can be connected via GPIOs to enhance gameplay.

While not designed for high-end 3D gaming, the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 is ideal for DIY handheld consoles, retro gaming projects, interactive toys, and embedded gaming interfaces. Developers should optimize code and assets for responsive touch feedback and efficient memory usage to ensure a seamless gaming experience.

Q4: Does installing the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 require special tools or technical expertise?

No, installation does not require specialized tools or advanced skills, making it accessible to hobbyists, students, and professional developers alike.

• Plug-and-Play Interface: Most variants connect directly to the ESP32-S3 development board using standard communication protocols such as SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) or I2C, which are widely supported in Arduino, ESP-IDF, and MicroPython environments.
• Basic Requirements: You’ll only need fundamental tools like jumper wires, a breadboard (optional), a USB cable for programming, and a computer with the appropriate IDE installed.
• Software Setup: Load the correct display driver library (e.g., TFT_eSPI or Adafruit_ILI9341), configure the pin mappings, and upload your code. Many manufacturers provide sample sketches and detailed documentation to accelerate development.
• No Soldering Needed: If using a pre-assembled module with a connector, no soldering is required—just plug and program.

Thanks to its user-friendly design and strong community support, the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 enables rapid prototyping and quick deployment for both beginners and experienced engineers.

Q5: What additional benefits does the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 offer for IoT projects?

Beyond its visual interface capabilities, the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 brings significant advantages to IoT (Internet of Things) applications by combining connectivity, interactivity, and extensibility in one compact solution.

• Wireless Connectivity: Built-in Wi-Fi 4 and Bluetooth 5 (including BLE) enable seamless integration into wireless networks, allowing remote monitoring, control, and data transmission.
• Interactive UI: The LCD provides a real-time graphical interface for displaying sensor data, alerts, menus, or control panels—eliminating the need for a smartphone or PC in standalone devices.
• Sensor Integration: Multiple GPIO pins allow connection to temperature, humidity, motion, gas, and other sensors, turning the device into a central hub for environmental monitoring or automation.
• Edge Computing: On-device processing reduces reliance on cloud services, enabling faster response times and offline functionality.
• Power Efficiency: The ESP32-S3 supports multiple sleep modes, making it suitable for battery-powered IoT deployments like smart sensors or portable trackers.
• OTA Updates: Firmware can be updated over-the-air, ensuring long-term maintainability and feature upgrades without physical access.

These features make the ESP32-S3 Touch LCD 4 a versatile choice for smart home controllers, industrial dashboards, wearable devices, agricultural monitors, and educational IoT kits—offering a rich, interactive experience in connected systems.