Types of PPR Pipe Jointing Machines
A PPR (Polypropylene Random Copolymer) pipe jointing machine is an essential tool in modern plumbing and piping systems, used to create strong, leak-proof connections through heat fusion. These machines are widely used in residential, commercial, and industrial applications due to the durability and chemical resistance of PPR pipes. Choosing the right type of jointing machine depends on project scale, precision requirements, budget, and working environment.
Automatic Jointing Machines
These advanced machines automate the entire welding process—from pipe alignment and heating to joining and cooling. Designed for high-volume production environments, they ensure consistent, high-quality joints with minimal human intervention.
Advantages
- High-speed operation for large-scale projects
- Consistent weld quality with minimal defects
- Reduced labor costs and operator fatigue
- Integrated safety and monitoring systems
- Ideal for prefabrication and factory settings
Limitations
- Higher initial investment
- Larger footprint and less portability
- Requires trained personnel for maintenance
- Less flexible for on-site modifications
Best for: Large construction sites, industrial plants, and pre-fabrication units
Manual PPR Pipe Machines
These rely on operator input for every step of the fusion process, including pipe alignment, heating time, joining pressure, and cooling. While basic in design, they offer simplicity and affordability for smaller operations.
Advantages
- Low purchase and maintenance cost
- Simple to operate and repair
- Portable and easy to transport
- Suitable for small plumbing jobs and repairs
- Widely available and easy to source
Limitations
- Higher risk of human error
- Inconsistent joint quality if not carefully monitored
- Slower process for large installations
- Physically demanding for long shifts
Best for: Small contractors, residential plumbing, and repair work
Hydraulic Jointing Machines
Utilizing hydraulic pressure systems, these machines deliver precise and powerful force during the fusion process. They are engineered for heavy-duty applications where consistent pressure and reliability are critical.
Advantages
- Superior pressure control for uniform joints
- High durability under extreme conditions
- Excellent for large-diameter pipes (DN63 and above)
- Minimizes operator effort during joining
- Resistant to wear in industrial environments
Limitations
- Heavier and less portable than manual units
- Requires regular maintenance of hydraulic components
- More complex setup and operation
- Potential for fluid leaks if not maintained
Best for: Industrial piping, large-diameter installations, and high-pressure systems
Plate-Type Jointing Machines
Equipped with heated plates that simultaneously melt the ends of two PPR pipes or fittings, these machines are among the most common for socket and butt fusion. Their compact design makes them ideal for fieldwork and tight spaces.
Advantages
- Compact and highly portable
- Simple operation with quick setup
- Low maintenance requirements
- Durable construction for rugged environments
- Cost-effective for medium-scale jobs
Limitations
- Manual pressure control can lead to inconsistencies
- Limited to smaller pipe diameters in basic models
- Requires careful temperature monitoring
- Operator must follow timing precisely
Best for: On-site installations, plumbing repairs, and remote locations
Digital Jointing Machines
These smart machines integrate digital displays, microprocessors, and sensors to monitor and control temperature, heating time, joining pressure, and cooling cycles. They represent the cutting edge in PPR fusion technology.
Advantages
- Precise control over all fusion parameters
- Real-time temperature and timing feedback
- Reduced risk of human error
- Data logging and connectivity (some models support Bluetooth or USB)
- Programmable settings for different pipe sizes and materials
Limitations
- Higher cost compared to analog models
- Sensitive to moisture and rough handling
- May require software updates or technical support
- Steeper learning curve for non-technical users
Best for: Commercial projects, quality-critical installations, and regulated environments
| Machine Type | Durability | Portability | Precision | Best Application |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Automatic | Excellent | Fair | Excellent | Large-scale industrial projects, prefabrication |
| Manual | Good | Excellent | Fair | Residential plumbing, small repairs |
| Hydraulic | Excellent | Good | Very Good | Heavy-duty industrial and large-diameter piping |
| Plate-Type | Very Good | Excellent | Good | Fieldwork, on-site installations, remote areas |
| Digital | Very Good | Good | Excellent | Commercial, regulated, and high-precision jobs |
Expert Tip: Always follow manufacturer guidelines for heating time, pressure, and cooling duration. Even the most advanced machine cannot compensate for improper fusion procedures. Regular calibration of digital and hydraulic units ensures long-term reliability and compliance with plumbing standards.
Key Features of PPR Pipe Jointing Machines
PPR (Polypropylene Random Copolymer) pipe jointing machines are essential tools in modern plumbing and HVAC installations, offering reliable, leak-free connections through thermal fusion. Understanding the critical features of these machines enables construction companies and contractors to select the right equipment for their specific project requirements—balancing efficiency, durability, and ease of use.
Heating System Efficiency
Advanced Heating Elements
Modern PPR pipe jointing machines are equipped with high-efficiency heating elements, typically made from corrosion-resistant materials like stainless steel or ceramic coatings. These heaters rapidly elevate the temperature of both the pipe and fitting, ensuring uniform heat distribution critical for a strong molecular bond during fusion.
This efficiency significantly reduces pre-heating time—often cutting it by up to 40% compared to older models—allowing faster cycle times and increased throughput on large-scale installations such as commercial buildings or municipal water systems.
Fusion Quality and Speed
A well-designed heating system ensures consistent thermal transfer, minimizing the risk of under- or over-fusion. Proper melting of the pipe surface allows for seamless joining without voids or weak spots, which could lead to leaks under pressure.
The ability to complete multiple joints per hour makes these machines ideal for time-sensitive projects. For example, a single operator can fuse over 50 joints in an 8-hour shift using a high-performance model, dramatically improving labor productivity.
Digital Temperature Control
Precision and Consistency
Digital temperature controls allow users to set exact heating levels (typically between 260°C and 280°C), which is crucial for achieving optimal fusion without damaging the PPR material. Unlike analog dials, digital interfaces provide real-time feedback and maintain set temperatures within ±2°C accuracy.
This precision prevents overheating, which can degrade the polymer structure and weaken the joint, or underheating, which results in incomplete bonding. The result is consistently strong, durable connections that meet international standards such as ISO 15874 and DIN 8077/8078.
Adaptability Across Applications
Different pipe diameters and wall thicknesses require specific temperature settings. Digital controls make it easy to switch between tasks—such as joining 20mm residential lines versus 110mm industrial pipelines—by simply adjusting the digital panel.
Many advanced models include preset programs for common pipe sizes, reducing setup errors and training time for new operators. This flexibility enhances usability across diverse job sites, from small renovations to large infrastructure developments.
Power Output and Performance
| Power Range (Watts) | Best For | Typical Use Cases |
|---|---|---|
| 1,000 – 1,500 W | Light-duty, small-diameter pipes | Residential plumbing, indoor HVAC systems |
| 1,600 – 2,000 W | Medium-duty, versatile applications | Commercial buildings, apartment complexes |
| 2,100 – 2,500 W | Heavy-duty, large-diameter pipes | Industrial plants, municipal water projects |
PPR jointing machines typically range from 1,000 to 2,500 watts, with higher wattage models delivering faster heat-up times and sustained performance during prolonged operation. High-power units are engineered with robust internal components and enhanced cooling systems to prevent thermal shutdowns, even during continuous use.
For instance, a 2,500-watt machine can heat a 63mm PPR coupling in under 30 seconds and maintain readiness for back-to-back fusions—ideal for high-volume jobs where downtime must be minimized.
Portability and Site Flexibility
Compact and Lightweight Design
Many PPR fusion machines are designed with portability in mind, weighing between 3 to 8 kg depending on power and size. Their compact footprint allows easy transport in toolboxes or on tool belts, making them suitable for tight spaces such as ceiling cavities, under-floor installations, or multi-story buildings.
Ergonomic handles and non-slip grips enhance user comfort during extended use, reducing operator fatigue on long workdays.
Mobility Enhancements
Some models feature foldable frames, telescopic stands, or modular components that collapse for storage and transport. Battery-powered variants—though less common—are emerging for remote locations without access to electrical outlets, offering cordless freedom for fieldwork.
Portability is especially valuable in renovation projects or rural installations where power sources may be limited and equipment must be moved frequently between work zones.
Durability and Build Quality
Important: Always match the machine’s specifications to your project scale and pipe requirements. Using an underpowered or poorly maintained unit can lead to weak joints, rework, and potential system failures. Regular cleaning of heating surfaces, calibration of temperature controls, and inspection of electrical cords are essential for safety and performance. Investing in a high-quality, feature-rich PPR jointing machine pays off in reduced labor time, fewer defects, and compliance with plumbing codes and standards.
Commercial Uses of a PPR Pipe Jointing Machine
PPR (Polypropylene Random Copolymer) pipe jointing machines have become essential tools across various industries due to their ability to create strong, leak-proof, and durable connections in plastic piping systems. These machines utilize heat fusion technology to weld PPR pipes and fittings seamlessly, ensuring long-term reliability and performance. Understanding their diverse commercial applications highlights their value in modern infrastructure, manufacturing, and agricultural development.
Construction Industry
In residential, commercial, and industrial construction, PPR pipe jointing machines are widely used for installing potable water supply and drainage systems. The fusion process creates monolithic joints that are as strong as the pipe itself, eliminating weak points that could lead to leaks or bursts.
- Ensures hygienic, corrosion-resistant water delivery ideal for drinking water systems
- Speeds up plumbing installations, reducing labor time by up to 40% compared to traditional methods
- Reduces material waste and rework, contributing to lower project overhead and faster completion timelines
- Compatible with modular construction techniques, supporting prefabrication of plumbing assemblies off-site
Key benefit: Long-term cost savings through reduced maintenance and fewer service disruptions
Heating and Cooling Systems (HVAC)
In HVAC applications, PPR piping is increasingly used for hydronic heating, chilled water distribution, and radiant floor systems. The jointing machine ensures reliable, thermally stable connections capable of handling fluctuating temperatures and pressures.
- Creates joints that withstand continuous operation between 60°C and 95°C, common in heating circuits
- Enables rapid installation of large-scale underfloor heating networks in commercial buildings
- Minimizes risk of leaks in concealed systems, reducing costly repairs after finishing work
- Supports energy-efficient building designs by maintaining consistent fluid flow with minimal pressure loss
Pro tip: Use insulated PPR pipes with fused joints for enhanced thermal efficiency in HVAC loops
Agriculture & Irrigation
Modern agricultural operations rely on efficient irrigation systems to maximize crop yields. PPR jointing machines enable the rapid deployment of durable piping networks for drip, sprinkler, and pivot irrigation systems.
- Allows quick assembly of large-scale irrigation layouts across vast farmlands
- Resists root intrusion, UV degradation, and chemical fertilizers commonly used in farming
- Ensures uniform water distribution, improving crop health and reducing water waste
- Reduces dependency on manual watering, lowering labor costs and increasing scalability
Critical advantage: Faster water delivery means timely irrigation during critical growth periods, boosting harvest output and farm profitability
Automotive Manufacturing
While not used directly on vehicles, PPR jointing machines play a vital role in automotive production facilities, particularly in coolant circulation, paint shop water systems, and factory-wide utility lines.
- Installs piping for closed-loop cooling systems that regulate temperatures in welding and molding equipment
- Supports clean, corrosion-free water transport for paint booth humidification and rinsing systems
- Facilitates fast setup of temporary or permanent utility lines during plant expansions or retooling
- Reduces downtime by enabling quick repairs or modifications to fluid handling infrastructure
Note: Though PPR isn't typically used in vehicle fuel systems, its industrial application supports efficient, leak-free plant operations that enhance overall production reliability
Chemical & Oil Refining Plants
In chemical processing and oil refining, transporting aggressive fluids requires piping systems with exceptional chemical resistance and structural integrity. PPR pipes, joined using precision fusion machines, meet these demands in non-high-pressure, moderate-temperature applications.
- Resists a wide range of acids, alkalis, and solvents commonly found in chemical plants
- Prevents hazardous leaks and environmental contamination through seamless, homogenous joints
- Supports rapid construction of secondary containment lines, drain systems, and cooling circuits
- Offers long service life with minimal maintenance, reducing shutdown frequency and repair costs
Safety note: PPR is suitable for non-critical, low-pressure chemical transfer; high-pressure or high-temperature hydrocarbon lines require metal alternatives
Additional Industrial Applications
Beyond the core sectors, PPR jointing machines are finding growing use in specialized environments where clean, durable, and cost-effective fluid transport is essential.
- Food & Beverage: Used in processing plants for clean water and non-oily fluid transfer due to FDA-compliant material safety
- Pharmaceuticals: Supports purified water systems in labs and manufacturing facilities requiring contamination-free piping
- Mining: Installs slurry transport and dewatering lines in non-abrasive applications
- Renewable Energy: Utilized in solar thermal systems and geothermal heat exchange loops
Emerging trend: Integration with digital tracking systems allows QR-coded joints for full lifecycle traceability in regulated industries
Professional Insight: When specifying PPR systems, always ensure technicians are trained in proper fusion procedures—correct heating time, alignment, and cooling are critical to joint integrity. Investing in high-quality jointing machines with temperature controls and alignment guides significantly reduces failure rates and enhances system longevity across all commercial applications.
| Industry | Primary Application | Key Benefit | Expected Lifespan |
|---|---|---|---|
| Construction | Potable water & drainage | Leak-proof, hygienic joints | 50+ years |
| HVAC | Hydronic heating & cooling | Thermal stability & efficiency | 40-50 years |
| Agriculture | Irrigation networks | Fast deployment & water savings | 30-40 years |
| Chemical Processing | Non-hazardous fluid transfer | Chemical resistance & safety | 25-35 years |
| Automotive (Facilities) | Coolant & utility lines | Low maintenance & reliability | 30+ years |
Factors Influencing Commercial Adoption
- Cost Efficiency: Lower material and labor costs compared to metal piping systems
- Installation Speed: Fusion takes seconds, enabling hundreds of joints per day
- Durability: Resistant to corrosion, scaling, and electrolytic reactions
- Sustainability: Recyclable material with low carbon footprint during production and transport
- Regulatory Compliance: Meets international standards (ISO 15874, ASTM F2389) for pressure piping
How To Choose The PPR Pipe Jointing Machine: A Comprehensive Buyer’s Guide
Selecting the right PPR (Polypropylene Random Copolymer) pipe jointing machine is essential for achieving strong, leak-free, and durable connections in plumbing, HVAC, and industrial piping systems. With a wide variety of models available—ranging from basic manual units to advanced automatic systems—choosing the appropriate machine requires careful evaluation of your project scope, operational needs, and long-term investment goals. This guide provides detailed insights into the key factors that influence your decision, helping contractors, plumbers, and facility managers make informed, cost-effective choices.
Safety & Efficiency Note: Always ensure the machine is used in a well-ventilated area and operated by trained personnel. Use heat-resistant gloves and eye protection when handling heated components to prevent burns and injuries during the fusion process.
1. Budget Considerations
Establishing a clear budget is the first and most crucial step in selecting a PPR pipe jointing machine. Your financial constraints will influence the type, size, and features of the machine you can afford.
- Manual Machines: These are typically the most affordable option, ideal for small-scale operations, residential plumbing, or occasional use. They require more labor but come with lower upfront costs.
- Automatic & Semi-Automatic Machines: These offer higher efficiency and consistency but come at a premium price. Suitable for commercial and industrial applications where speed and precision are critical.
- Hidden Costs: Don’t overlook ongoing expenses such as replacement heating plates, calibration services, spare parts, and potential downtime. Machines with modular designs often reduce long-term maintenance costs.
- Return on Investment (ROI): Larger businesses should evaluate how quickly a more expensive, high-output machine can pay for itself through increased productivity and reduced labor time.
2. Power Output and Heating Efficiency
The power output of a PPR jointing machine directly affects its heating speed, temperature consistency, and suitability for different pipe diameters.
- High-Power Units (1500W–3000W+): Best for large-diameter pipes (63mm and above) and continuous operation in industrial settings. They heat up faster and maintain stable temperatures under heavy use.
- Low-Power Units (500W–1000W): Suitable for small to medium pipes (20mm–40mm), commonly used in domestic plumbing. These are energy-efficient and portable but may require longer heating times.
- Temperature Control: Look for machines with digital thermostats and automatic cut-off features to ensure precise heating (typically 260°C ± 10°C) and prevent overheating, which can degrade pipe material.
- Heating Time: Machines with higher wattage reduce cycle time, increasing throughput—critical for time-sensitive projects.
3. Type of Machine: Manual vs. Automatic
The choice between manual and automatic machines depends on your workload, workforce size, and desired level of precision.
- Manual PPR Welding Machines:
- Affordable and easy to operate with minimal training.
- Require skilled operators to maintain consistent pressure and timing during fusion.
- Better suited for small teams, DIY projects, or infrequent use.
- Higher risk of human error affecting joint quality.
- Automatic/Semi-Automatic Machines:
- Automate heating, joining, and cooling phases with programmable settings.
- Ensure uniform pressure and timing, resulting in highly reliable joints.
- Ideal for large-scale installations like hospitals, factories, or district cooling systems.
- May require initial training but reduce dependency on operator skill.
- Hybrid Models: Some machines offer semi-automatic features like motorized alignment and pressure control while keeping manual heating plate insertion, balancing cost and performance.
4. Build Quality and Materials
Durability is critical, especially in harsh job site environments. A well-constructed machine will withstand frequent use and deliver consistent results over time.
- Frame Material: Machines made from hardened steel or reinforced aluminum alloys offer superior durability and resistance to impact and corrosion.
- Heating Plates: High-quality non-stick coated (e.g., Teflon) heating plates prevent polymer residue buildup and ensure clean, even heating. Replaceable plates extend machine life.
- Mechanical Components: Look for precision-machined clamps, smooth glide rails, and robust handles that ensure accurate alignment and ease of use.
- Weather Resistance: For outdoor or industrial use, consider machines with protective casings or IP-rated enclosures to guard against dust and moisture.
| Machine Type | Best For | Power Range | Typical Pipe Size Range | Maintenance Needs |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Manual Handheld | Small plumbing jobs, repairs | 500–800W | 20–40mm | Low (clean plates, inspect clamps) |
| Manual Benchtop | Residential, light commercial | 1000–1500W | 20–63mm | Moderate (lubricate rails, check alignment) |
| Semi-Automatic | Medium to large projects | 1500–2000W | 40–110mm | Moderate (software updates, sensor checks) |
| Full Automatic | Industrial, factory use | 2000–3000W+ | 63–200mm | Higher (professional servicing recommended) |
5. Commercial and Industrial Applications
The intended application plays a decisive role in machine selection. Different environments demand different levels of performance, portability, and automation.
- Small Businesses & Plumbers: A compact, manual benchtop machine offers the best balance of cost, portability, and functionality for daily residential installations.
- Construction Contractors: Mid-range semi-automatic models provide faster throughput and better joint consistency for multi-unit housing or commercial buildings.
- Industrial Facilities & Factories: Fully automatic machines with data logging, pressure monitoring, and error detection are essential for compliance, quality control, and large-volume production.
- Municipal & Infrastructure Projects: High-capacity machines capable of fusing large-diameter pipes (110mm+) are necessary for water supply networks and district heating systems.
Expert Tip: Always test the machine with sample pipes before starting a major project. This helps verify temperature accuracy, alignment, and ease of operation. Keep a log of fusion parameters (time, temperature, pressure) for quality assurance and compliance with industry standards like ISO 12176 or ASTM F2389.
Additional Selection Tips
- Brand Reputation & Support: Choose machines from reputable manufacturers that offer warranties, technical support, and readily available spare parts.
- Portability: For field work, consider lightweight models with carrying cases or wheels.
- Compatibility: Ensure the machine supports the range of pipe diameters and fittings you commonly use.
- Training & Manuals: Opt for models with clear user guides, video tutorials, or training programs to reduce onboarding time.
- Energy Efficiency: Machines with insulated heating elements and auto-shutdown features save power and reduce operating costs.
In conclusion, choosing the right PPR pipe jointing machine involves balancing budget, power, automation level, build quality, and intended application. Investing in the correct machine not only improves work efficiency and joint reliability but also enhances safety and long-term cost savings. Whether you're a solo plumber or managing a large construction team, taking the time to evaluate these factors will ensure you select a machine that delivers consistent, high-quality results for years to come.
Frequently Asked Questions About PPR Pipe Jointing Machines
A1: A PPR (Polypropylene Random Copolymer) pipe jointing machine, also known as a heat fusion machine, is a specialized tool designed to permanently join PPR pipes and fittings through a thermal fusion process. The machine heats the ends of two pipes or a pipe and fitting to a precise temperature, then presses them together to form a seamless, leak-proof connection.
In the construction and plumbing industries, these machines are essential for installing modern water supply, heating, cooling, and industrial fluid transport systems. They are widely used in residential, commercial, and industrial projects due to the durability, chemical resistance, and long service life of PPR piping systems.
- Efficiency: Enables fast, reliable connections without the need for glues, solvents, or mechanical joints.
- Strength: Fusion creates joints that are as strong as the pipe itself, minimizing the risk of leaks or failures.
- Applications: Commonly used in underfloor heating, potable water systems, HVAC networks, and cleanroom installations.
A2: PPR pipe jointing machines are typically constructed using high-grade engineering materials to ensure durability, heat resistance, and portability. The primary structural components are made from:
- Steel Alloys: Used in the frame and base for strength and stability, especially in heavy-duty models. Stainless steel resists corrosion and supports long-term use in harsh environments.
- Aluminum Alloys: Commonly used in lightweight, portable models due to their excellent strength-to-weight ratio and resistance to rust.
- Reinforced Plastics: Applied in handles, casings, and protective covers to reduce overall weight and improve ergonomics.
- Heat-Resistant Components: Insulated heating plates and nozzles made from anodized aluminum or coated metals to ensure even heat distribution and prevent sticking.
The combination of robust metals and engineered plastics ensures that the machine remains durable, easy to transport, and capable of withstanding repeated heating and cooling cycles over many years of service.
A3: Modern PPR pipe jointing machines come equipped with several key features that enhance performance, safety, and versatility on job sites:
- Adjustable Heating Elements: Precision-controlled heating plates or dies that maintain consistent temperatures (typically between 260°C and 280°C) for optimal fusion quality.
- Multiple Die Sizes: Interchangeable or modular dies allow the machine to accommodate various pipe diameters (e.g., 20mm to 110mm), making it suitable for both small plumbing jobs and large-scale installations.
- Digital Temperature Control: Advanced models include digital displays and thermostats to monitor and regulate heat accurately, reducing the risk of under- or over-heating.
- Power Switch with Indicator Lights: Ensures safe operation and provides visual feedback on heating status.
- Stable Base and Alignment Guides: Help maintain straight, coaxial alignment during fusion, which is critical for leak-free joints.
- Overheat Protection: Built-in safety mechanisms automatically cut power if the machine exceeds safe operating temperatures.
These features collectively ensure high-quality, repeatable connections across diverse project requirements, improving efficiency and reducing rework.
A4: Proper maintenance is crucial to ensure the longevity, safety, and performance of a PPR pipe jointing machine. Follow these best practices after each use:
- Clean Heating Plates: Wipe off melted plastic residue with a soft cloth or brass brush while the plates are still warm (not hot). Avoid using water or abrasive materials that can damage the non-stick coating.
- Inspect Components: Regularly check for worn or damaged dies, frayed power cords, loose connections, or signs of overheating.
- Lubricate Moving Parts: If applicable, lightly lubricate hinges, clamps, or adjustment screws to ensure smooth operation.
- Store Properly: Keep the machine in a dry, dust-free environment. Use protective covers or cases to prevent moisture exposure and physical damage.
- Follow Manufacturer Guidelines: Adhere to the maintenance schedule and procedures outlined in the user manual, including recommended cleaning agents and replacement intervals.
Regular upkeep prevents performance degradation and reduces the risk of defective joints caused by inconsistent heating or misalignment.
A5: Extending the service life of a PPR pipe jointing machine involves consistent care, responsible usage, and proactive maintenance. Here are proven strategies:
- Practice Regular Maintenance: Clean and inspect the machine after every job to prevent buildup and detect early signs of wear.
- Avoid Overworking: Operate the machine within its rated capacity and allow sufficient cooldown time between extended use sessions to prevent thermal stress.
- Use Correct Settings: Always set the appropriate temperature for the pipe size and material type—excessive heat accelerates component wear.
- Handle with Care: Transport and store the machine carefully to avoid drops, impacts, or deformation of critical parts like heating plates.
- Train Operators: Ensure all users are properly trained to operate the machine correctly, reducing human error and misuse.
- Replace Worn Parts Promptly: Don’t delay replacing damaged dies, cords, or switches, as this can lead to further damage or safety hazards.
By following these practices, businesses can maximize return on investment, maintain consistent fusion quality, and reduce downtime due to equipment failure. A well-maintained PPR jointing machine can last over a decade, even under frequent use.








浙公网安备
33010002000092号
浙B2-20120091-4
Comments
No comments yet. Why don't you start the discussion?